Dónde tomar clases gratis para el examen de ciudadanía

Dà ³nde tomar clases gratis para el examen de ciudadanà ­a Los residentes permanentes legales pueden tomar clases gratis con numerosas organizaciones para estudiar los exmenes de inglà ©s y de conocimientos histà ³ricos y cà ­vicos, los cuales forman parte de los requisitos para adquirir la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense por el trmite de la  naturalizacià ³n. En este artà ­culo se listan 40 organizaciones - y sus respectivos nà ºmeros telefà ³nicos- ubicadas en los 12  estados con mayor poblacià ³n latina que brindan gratuitamente clases para la ciudadanà ­a. Adems, muchas de ellas tambià ©n ayudan para completar el formulario N-400, con el cual se inicia la tramitacià ³n de la solicitud de la naturalizacià ³n.   Los migrantes que residen en otros estados encontrarn, al final de este artà ­culo, un telà ©fono al que pueden marcar desde cualquier parte de Estados Unidos para solicitar informacià ³n sobre organizaciones locales que prestan este servicio. Finalmente, antes de presentar este documento se recomienda a todos los residentes permanentes verificar si califican para no pagar la tarifa correspondiente que, en la actualidad, es de $725, incluidos los $85 de la toma de los datos biomà ©tricos.  ¿Donde tomar clases gratis para examen de ciudadanà ­a? Todas las organizaciones que se listan a continuacià ³n forman parte de la campaà ±a para Nuevos Ciudadanos Americanos, liderada  por el Immigrant Legal Resource Center y del que forman parte asociaciones sin fines de lucro, fundaciones, organizaciones religiosas y despachos de abogados. Las organizaciones religiosas en este listado atienden a todos los migrantes;  es decir, no es necesario practicar su religià ³n para recibir este tipo de ayuda. Arizona International Rescue Committee. Tel: 602-433-2440Chicanos por la Causa. Tel: 602-257-0700. E-mail: infocplc.orgPromise ArizonaFriendly House. Tel: 602-416-7210. E-mail: evelynsfriendlyhouse.org, a la atencià ³n de Evelyn SenzCampesinos sin Frontera. Tel: 928-627-5995. En el condado de Yuma California Immigrant Legal Resource Center en el rea de Central Valley. Tel: 415-255-9499NALEO Educational Fund en la zona de Los AngelesInstituto Internacional del Area de la Bahà ­a, en zona de San Francisco. Tel. 415-538-8100 ext. 206Public Law Center, en el rea del condado de Orange. Tel: 714-541-1010Ready Now San Diego, en el rea de San Diego. Tel: 619-363-3423Services Immigrant Rights Educational Services, zona de Sillicon Valley. Tel: 408-453-3017 Carolina del Norte Carolina Refugee Resettlement Program. Tel: 704-535-8803  Insteep. Tel: 919-680-8000. Email: infoinstepp.orgLa Coalicià ³n. Tel: 888-839-8682. Cobra una pequeà ±a tarifa. Colorado Puede contactar a Colorado Immigrants Rights Coalition en: Denver.  Tel: 303-922-2244Montrose. Tel:970-249-4115 Florida Brevard Hispanic Center. Tel: 321-802-9516. Zona de Palm BayCatholic Legal Services. Tel: 305-372-1073 (Downtown Miami) y 305-887-8333 (Doral)Hispanic Services Council. Tel: 813-936-7700. TampaJustice Shall Be for All. Tel: 407-556-5955. Email: infojusticeshallbeforall.org. KissimmeeRedlands Christian Migrant Association. Tel: 800-282-6540. Area de Immokalee Georgia Catholic Charities of Atlanta. Tel: 770-790-3104GALEO. Tel: 885-54GALEOLatin American Association. Tel: 404-638-1800 (Atlanta), 404-702-0271 (Athens), 678-205-1018 (Lawrenceville)New American Pathways. Tel: 404-299-6099. Afiliada con el Church World Service and Episcopal Migration Ministries.Oficina del alcalde de Atlanta para Asuntos Migratorios. Email: welcomingatlantaatlantaga.gov Illinois Esperanza Legal Assistant Center. Tel: 309-732-0047Hispanic American Community Education and Services. Tel: 847-244-0300. Email: infohaces.orgIllinois Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights. Tel: 855-435-7693 Nueva York Catholic Migration Services. Tel: 728-236-3000 (Brooklyn), 347-472-3500 (Queens)CUNY Citizenship Now. Tel: 646-664-9400Dominicanos USA. Tel: 718-665-0400. Email: contactdominicanosusa.orgMake the Road New York. Tel: 718-418-7690Northern Manhattan Coalition for Immigrant Rights. Tel: 212-781-0355Oficina del Alcalde de Nueva York para Asuntos Migratorios. Tel: 212-788-7654Oficina del Estado de Nueva York para Nuevos Americanos. Tel: 1-800-566-7636 Nueva Jersey Make the Road New Jersey. Tel: 908-768-4991 Nuevo Mà ©xico New Mexico State University. Tel: 575-234-9280 (Carlsbad)Catholic Charities brinda ayuda a bajo costo en 2010 Bridge SW (Albuquerque) y en 1234 San Felipe Ave (Santa Fe) Texas American Gateways. Tel: 512-478-046, ext. 200 (Austin), 210-521-4768, ext. 232/233 (San Antonio), y 512-387-2650 (Waco)Catholic Charities of Dallas. Tel: 214-634-7182Catholic Charities of Galveston and Houston. Tel: 713-526-4611Proyecto Inmigrante. Tel: 888-793-2182. Oficinas en Dallas, Fort Worth y Wichita Falls Washington Colectiva Legal del Pueblo. Tel: 206-931-1514. Email: infocolectivalegal.orgOficina de Seattle para Inmigrantes y Refugiados. Tel: 202-727-8515.One America. Realizan Dà ­as de la Ciudadanà ­a por todo el estado. Adems, desde todos los estados se puede marcar a la Asociacià ³n Nacional de Oficiales Latinos Electos  (NALEO, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) al 888-839-8682. Esta là ­nea se atiende en inglà ©s y en espaà ±ol y se ofrece informacià ³n sobre otros centros cercanos adonde se puede acudir para solicitar ayuda en la preparacià ³n de los exmenes de inglà ©s, historia y conocimientos cà ­vicos para sacar la ciudadanà ­a estadounidense por naturalizacià ³n. Recursos en là ­nea para preparar el examen para la ciudadanà ­a Los residentes permanentes que consideren que es suficiente si estudian por sà ­ mismos, pueden practicar el examen en la pgina de la organizacià ³n Citizenship Works o en la pgina de UScitizenshipsupport.com. En ambas pginas se informa sobre las 100 preguntas de conocimientos cà ­vicos e historia que pueden ser preguntadas y tambià ©n se brindan tips memorà ­sticas para facilitar recordar las respuestas correctas el dà ­a del examen. Tambià ©n se ofrece informacià ³n prctica sobre quà © esperar el dà ­a de la entrevista y examen. Asimismo, en la pgina del Servicio de Inmigracià ³n y Ciudadanà ­a (USCIS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) se brinda material para practicar el examen cà ­vico y el de inglà ©s. Es de interà ©s verificar siempre esta pgina porque actualiza posibles cambios a las preguntas. Por ejemplo, los nombres del presidente, vicepresidente,  partido en el gobierno y representantes locales ante el Congreso. Informacià ³n prctica sobre el examen para ciudadanà ­a por naturalizacià ³n Como regla general, actualmente la cita para presentarse al examen de inglà ©s y conocimientos histà ³ricos y cà ­vicos tiene lugar entre 6 y 8 meses despuà ©s de la presentacià ³n de los papeles. El examen, salvo casos excepcionales por edad o enfermedad o discapacidad, deber rendirse siempre y en inglà ©s. El mismo dà ­a tiene lugar la entrevista.   Si el migrante reprueba el examen, deber repetirlo. USCIS enviar una carta con una nueva cita entre 60 y 90 dà ­as despuà ©s.  Si de nuevo reprueba, la peticià ³n de naturalizacià ³n se negar y se deber iniciar desde cero un nuevo proceso de naturalizacià ³n y pagar una nueva tarifa. Por el contrario, si el migrante pasa el examen y la entrevista, como regla general jurar como ciudadano estadounidense entre 1 y 4 semanas despuà ©s de haber aprobado dicho examen. Es recomendable no viajar fuera de Estados Unidos desde la fecha en la que se aprueba el examen y la de juramentacià ³n y, si se hace, que sea por un corto periodo de tiempo. Finalmente, a la hora de adquirir la nacionalidad americana es  importante conocer las ventajas y derechos que se adquieren con esta ciudadanà ­a. Uno de los beneficios no muy conocido es que en promedio los ciudadanos ganan a lo largo de su vida laboral un 11 por ciento ms que los residentes permanentes legales.   Tambià ©n se puede votar en elecciones federales. Para ejercer el derecho al voto es necesario registrarse previamente segà ºn las leyes del estado en el que se reside. Puntos Clave: clases gratis para la ciudadanà ­a por naturalizacià ³n. Los residentes permanentes legales pueden nacionalizarse y adquirir la ciudadanà ­a  estadounidense mediante el trmite de la naturalizacià ³n.Los exmenes de inglà ©s leà ­do y escrito y de conocimientos histà ³ricos y cà ­vicos es parte del trmite de naturalizacià ³n.Numerosas organizaciones brindan clases gratis para ayudar a los migrantes a aprobar dichos  exmenes.NALEO Educational Fund es la coordinara nacional de muchas de  esas organizaciones a travà ©s de la Campaà ±a Citizenship Works. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

What Is the IB Program, and What Are IB Classes

What Is the IB Program, and What Are IB Classes SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips One factor some students consider when choosing a high school is whether it has an International Baccalaureate program. Sometimes compared with the Advanced Placement (AP) program, the IB program allows students to take college-level courses while in high school. So what is International Baccalaureate? What is the IB Program and an IB Diploma, and why are IB classes worth taking?In this article, we introduce all things IB, including the diploma requirements and features of the exam. We also tell you whether you have to get an IB diploma in order to earn college credit for your IB classes. What Is IB? An Overview The International Baccalaureate (IB) program was designed in Switzerland in the 1960s. Its purpose was to give students around the world a chance to earn a rigorous, internationally recognized diploma, which they could then use for entry into universities. (You can read more about the history and philosophy of the IB program on the official IB website. ) To earn an IB diploma, you have to go to an IB-approved school and meet the requirements, including taking classes in the six subject groups, passing the IB exams, and completing three additional core requirements. But what if you don’t want to do the diploma? It's also possible to take a few IB classes without doing the full-blown diploma program, though each high school has its own policy on this. How Does College Credit Work for IB? IB exams are recognized for college credit in a way similar to how AP exams are used. You don’t have to earn the IB diploma to get credit for individual classes, as colleges give credit course by course. For example, check outStanford’s chart for IB credit. IB classes come in two forms: "higher level" and "standard level" (we will discuss this in more detail below). Some colleges only give credit for the higher-level classes (as Stanford does). Also,some colleges will completely waive general education requirements for students who have completed the full IB diploma.See the University of Utah’s policy here as an example. This means that a student with an IB diploma could totally skip gen ed classes and jump right into their major. This would obviously save a ton of time and money,and shows why getting the IB diploma can be a huge advantage. To find a school’s policy on IB credit, search for "[School Name] IB credit policy." Most universities have a dedicated web page for explaining their IB credit policy. What Are the Benefits of the IB Program? One of the chief benefits of the IB program is that it provides academic preparation for college. IB courses are known for being interdisciplinary, requiring a good deal of independent thinking, and assigning oral presentations and original research- all characteristics of college courses. Spoiler alert: college-level research involves a bit more work than just Googling something. Especially if you earn the full IB diploma, your IB courses will be a great way of showing that you have taken tough courses in a range of subjects,from math to English to history to science, and are able to manage college-level coursework. As we discussed before, colleges want to see that you've taken the most advanced classes available to you.And taking IB is a great way to do just that. In addition to getting preparation for college, you can get credit for college classes by passing IB exams. Again, you don’t need to complete the full IB diploma in order to earn credit, so if you don’t think you can fit the IB diploma into your schedule, it might still benefit you to take a few individual IB classes. Unfortunately, taking an IB exam isn’t cheap. There's a $172 registration fee as well as a $119 fee per exam. While this is a lot of money, it is much less than the tuition you would pay for the same intro-level college course. Many schools also have their own financial aid programs for IB. Learn more about IB costs here. What Are the 6Core Courses in the IB Program? To earn the full IB diploma, you have to take courses from six subjects, one each from groups 1-5, and either one from group 6 or a substitute from one of the other groups: Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature (most likely an English literature course if you’re an American student) Group 2: Language Acquisition (a foreign language course) Group 3: Individuals and Societies (history, economics, geography, other social sciences) Group 4: Experimental Sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, other sciences) Group 5: Mathematics Group 6: The Arts (dance, theater, visual arts, etc.) Between three and four subjects must be taken at the â€Å"higher level† (HL) and the rest at the â€Å"standard level† (SL) in order to earn the diploma. Higher-level courses are more challenging- IB recommends a minimum of 240 hours of instructional time for HL courses, and 150 hours for SL courses. Some schools handle the higher-level requirements by having students take the SL or AP version of a course first, and the HL version second, thereby forming a two-year sequence. For example, you might take AP English Literature as a junior, and then Higher-Level IB English as a senior. Also, note thatmany high schools with IB programs have recommended four-year plans to help students fit in all the requirements,since there's a lot to keep track of. Therefore, you won't necessarily have to do a bunch of schedule-planning on your own. If your school or a school you're interested in has an IB program, get in touch with the guidance counseling office to find out whether they have recommended IB class sequences. This can help you if you're deciding which high school to attend, or if you can’t decide whether you want to take IB classes or not. What Are IB Exams? For each of those six core classes, you also have to take an IB exam. IB exams are given in May (or November for southern hemisphere schools). They have two parts: an external assessment and internal assessment. The external assessment is the more traditional exam portion, and consists of two or three "papers," usually done on the same day or a few days in a row. A paper is essentially an exam section, and they usually have a combination of multiple-choice, short-answer, extended-response, and data- or case-analysis questions. You won't spend much time bubbling in answers on an IB exam. The papers are graded by independent examiners- similar to how AP exams are graded by certified AP graders. The internal assessments are done by the teacher. These can include oral presentations, practical work (such as a written lab report), or other written work. 5% or more of the internal assessments will also be graded by a moderator appointed by IB- and based on this moderation, the grading curve of that subject at the school will be set. IB exams are graded from 1 to 7, with 6 and 7 considered an A, and anything 4 and up generally considered a passingscore (though IB doesn’t set official passing grades). Most colleges give IB credit for scores of 5 and higher. To earn the IB diploma, you need to score an average of 4 on each exam to get the minimum 24 needed points. You canlearn more about IB examson the IB website. What Are the 3Core Requirements in the IB Program? In addition to IB classes and exams, there are three more core requirements students must complete to earn an IB diploma. Read about them below: #1: The Extended Essay This is an independent research essay of up to 4,000 words that's graded externally by IB. It has to be focused on one academic subjectand written on a topic that's been approved by IB. Students are awarded points toward their diploma based on how well they do on the essay. #2: Theory of Knowledge (TOK) Class This class teaches the nature of knowledge and builds skills in critical thinking. Students have to complete a presentation (graded by the teacher) and a 1,600-word essay (graded externally) to pass this course. #3: Creativity, Activity, Service (CAS) Lastly, students are required to participate in anactivity outside of class, either community service, athletics, or creative activities.For most students, their regular extracurricular activities and sports count for these hours, meaning that they don't need to add anything to their schedules in order to fulfill this requirement. IB vs AP: Key Similarities and Differences We have a complete rundown of AP vs IB in this post, which includes a guide to deciding between the two programs. That being said, here are some of the key similarities and differences between the two. What’s the Same? Both the AP and IB programs allow you to take a challenging course followed by an exam that you can earn college credit for. In some schools, they're even the same course (e.g. AP/IB French, AP/IB Biology, etc.). AP and IB are generally the most challenging courses available to high school students. Unless you're able to sign up for local college courses or do advanced independent projects and research, AB and IB are likely the best (and most convenient) way for you to begin preparing for college. What’s Different? Although both programs offer challenging courses for high school students, there are a lot of differences in how they do so. Popularity Advanced Placement is by far the more popular program.In 20142.3 million students took AP tests, and in 2017 this number rose to more than 2.7 million. By contrast,only about 160,000 students took IB exams in 2017. The diploma pass rate was 78.4%. Some families opt for the IB program over the AP program as it's rarer and can help set students apart in the admissions process. Diploma IB was designed as a diploma program (although, as we discussed above, it is possible to take just a few IB classes for college credit). Meanwhile,the AP program was designed around advanced classes- not a diploma. (That said, the AP has created a competitor to IB via the AP International Diploma, whichyou can read about here.) Class Curricula IB curricula are stricter for teachers. IB has certain required assignments your teacher has to grade, such as oral presentations, as part of the internal assessment. In contrast, AP teachers have a bit more freedom in how they may teach an AP course, just so long as they're effectively preparing students for the exam. Difficulty IB Higher Level courses are often considered more difficult than APs, whereas IB Standard Level courses are considered the same as or easier than APs. Keep in mind that how difficult a class is to pass at your school will vary depending on the teacher and his or her curriculum. Exam Content IB exams contain more writing and application of ideas, whereas APs are more about proving what you know. This is why AP exams have more multiple choice, while the IB exams feature more short-response questions, essays, and case studies. Cost IB exams are more expensive than AP tests since there's a registration fee and a fee per exam. For AP exams, you just pay for the exam, which is $94. Remember that these fees are much lower than college tuition for the same classes! College Credit Getting AP credit can be more straightforward since more US colleges are familiar with it and the College Board officially sets a passing grade (3 out of 5) while IB does not. Furthermore, because AP courses only come in one difficulty level, it can be easier for colleges to set credit policies for AP exams. For IB, colleges have to decide how they'll handle Standard Level and Higher Level courses. However, for both IB and AP, the higher your passing score is, the more likely you are to get credit for college. For example, an AP exam score of 5 nearly always earns credit, the same as an IB score of 7 does. Don't forget this when you're studying! What’s Next? You know a lot about IB- but what about AP? See our guide to what AP classes are and why you should take them. Also studying for the SAT or ACT? Figure out which exam you're more likely to do the best on! Get a timeline for studying for the SAT/ACT. Planning ahead will give you the opportunity to get a higher score on test day! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Child abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Child abuse - Essay Example He therefore recommends that parents should be treated alongside their children through the use of therapeutic techniques that will make them more sensitive to each other's needs. This is followed by a research into the effectiveness of home-visits by social welfare units in checking child abuse. The final paper examined is the writing of Dr. Jim Hooper about statistics into child abuse and why children are not reporting abuses. The paper ends by making recommendations based on these empirical findings of these authorities. Keywords: Child abuse, culture, society, community, violence, sexual abuse Introduction Child abuse is a major problem that affects the growth of children. Oates (1996, p2) defines child abuse as any non-accidental injury; physical, emotional or sexual that a child suffers from acts or omissions on the part of his or her parents or guardians. Child abuse exists in four main forms (Harelin, 2000 p6). There is the physical abuse which involves actions that harms the body of a child like hitting, kicking, slapping and punching. Usually, physical abuse leaves injuries to a child. There is the emotional abuse which includes anything said or done to hurt a child's feelings or self esteem. Examples include frequent blaming, insult and shouting. Harelin states that this is the most destructive form of abuse to children. There is neglect which involves ignoring or choosing not to take care of a child's basic needs like food, shelter and clothing (Harelin, 2006, p7). Finally, there is the issue of sexual abuse which involves the use of actions related to sex to harm a child. Examples include rape, incest and child pornography. These four forms of child abuse are universally accepted as wrong and destructive. Many nations, under the auspices of the United Nations have laws that make these four practices illegal. There are also issues that can be technically defined as child abuse, but its inclusion in statutes is quite controversial (Matthews 2004 p396 ). This include withholding medical care to children, corporal punishment and child maltreatment in youth sports. Several studies have been conducted into child abuse that aim at diagnosing and providing a cue to how the issue of child abuse can be solved using empirical studies. This paper examines four of such studies Children, Childhoods & Violence by Jill Korbin In this article, Jill Korbin identifies the link between culture, the society and child abuse. Korbin therefore uses her in-depth knowledge in anthropology to identify the intervention points of child abuse and the real society. She tries to diagnose the issue of child abuse and measure how it finds its way into the society and vice versa. In other words, she looks at the sociological push and pull factors that brings about the issue of child abuse in societies around the world. In setting the parameters of her discussion, Korbin states that the dynamics of the violent treatment of children can be categorized into settin g, perpetrators, type, severity, age and gender, as well as the cultural context (p431). With these yardsticks, the concept could be examined in a given society either individually or collectively. Korbin states that child abuse could flourish in a given society due to three main factors: cultural promoters, cultural categorization/discrimination and structural violence (p437). Cultural promoters like idiosyncrasies, which include things that

Herpert Simon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Herpert Simon - Essay Example These observations lead to Simon’s rejection of the classical economic assumption of prefect-knowledge and to derive â€Å"bounded rationality† in decision making (Simon, etal, 1987). â€Å"In (‘On how to decide what to do’) (Simon) claims, rightly, that traditional economics has too often been concerned with what decisions are made rather than how they are made.† (Hunt 1) How decisions are made is a better real world indicator of how resources are allocated, which is the study of economics. (Hunt 2) Simon’s interest was in how man processes the limited available information and with imperfect logic. Bounded rationality â€Å"refers to peoples limited ability to make comparisons, to see into the future, and, more generally, to process information†. (Cyret 63) Simon created the term â€Å"satisficing†, presumably a hybrid term mixing satisfying and sufficing, to indicate achieving the perceived best position with imperfect informa tion. Preferring a blend of thinking, laboratory work and empirical observations of thinking and decision making, Simon wanted economists to get out of the think tanks and go observe business people making decisions. (Cyret) Simon started with the conviction that human rationality was bounded externally by social constraints and internally by cognitive restraints (Sent 227). People were not truly free to make decisions since conformity and possibility were unquantifiable constraints in the process. Bounded rationality was not concerned with symmetry or macroeconomic functions at all. It is a decision making and problem solving theory not meant to strengthen neoclassical economic thought like Nash’s game theory which Simon considered crude and incomplete. In Simon’s theory, quantification is used to enhance rationality, not create it. The management situation sets the conditions for rational thought; therefore some actions are predisposed to be viewed as nonworking solu tions (Mankelwicz 60). Common sense, or heuristics, actually applies available metrics as a screening tool. â€Å"Human perception may be as bounded in scope as our rationality†. (Mankelwicz 63). Quantitative results may be viewed as symbols, talisman. Managers may experience numbers as moral symbols, guideposts (Mankelwicz 64) Technical rationality, degree of quantification, economic, social, legal politics and political stakeholders, although largely invisible, impact the final decision, certainly the reasonable solution possibilities (Mankelwicz 65). Simon studied bounded rationality, the decision making process, under several disciplines allowing him to consider â€Å"decomposability†, the breakdown of problems into hierarchies, the systems of considering means and ends to reach a decision (Augier & Frank 584). Applying rationality, people cannot have perfect information. So, the decision making process is like the scientific methods of laboratory testing and field data collection. Neither is the sole path to truth. Neither is the sole source of perfect decisions. (Hunt 2) Managers must reach decisions through satisficing, that is being at least as optimal as the competition. It is possible the cost of optimization is greater than the reward. (Hunt 2) As early as the 1960’s, theories of systems were forming. â€Å"A system may be defined as an orderly grouping of separate but interdependent components for the purpose of attaining

Socioeconomic and political environments Essay Example for Free

Socioeconomic and political environments Essay After the Civil War, Washington returned to the family business, assisting in completing two more suspension bridges across the Ohio River (Invention Factory 2007). During this time Washington’s father, John, became interested in building a bridge across the East River. New York legislators finally realized the need for a route over the East River and passed a bill for some sort of construction. The largest restriction that the plans for the structure had to abide by was its height over the river, which was set to avoid contact with masts of ships that passes under it. This idea of a bridge was nothing new. For 60 years, different ways of linking Brooklyn and New York had been considered (Trachtenberg 1965). Soon, the city of New York set up the first ferries from Manhattan to Brooklyn in 1812 but more versatile transit was needed. The Brooklyn Bridge was erected out of economic necessity and urban sprawl (Brooke and Davidson 2006). New York City was a huge immigration hub. In the mid-1800’s, men and women began to emigrate from Europe and many settled in Brooklyn. As a result, many lived in boarding houses. Brooklyn at this time consisted mainly of Irish immigrants. Immigrants were paid very poorly considered the work they performed as it was always the most demanding and risky. From 1860 to 1870, Brooklyn’s population growth was 50 percent; the fastest growing city at the time (Trachtenberg 1965). Manhattan was the opposite of Brooklyn, in that it was primarily a business district in the mid 1800’s. Approximately 40 percent of wager earners in Brooklyn had jobs in Manhattan. The northeastern coast was a major hub for imports and manufacturing goods after the Erie Canal was built. At the time the only way to get from Manhattan to Brooklyn was by fairy which was often slow and hampered by storms. Taking the ferries tended to be very dangerous. Plans for a either a bridge or a tunnel over the East River were interrupted by the Civil War. Bridges were thought to be impossible as no materials where known to be strong enough to support the needed span. Part of the problem was that the bridge needed to be high above the channel to allow masted ships to pass beneath it, even at high tide. These details had proved insurmountable until then. A fleet of ferries shuttled people and goods across the river every day. John Roebling, with his wire rope business and history of successful suspension bridges, had a viable solution (Invention Factory 2007). The Brooklyn Bridge would use steel in its cables. Good wrought iron breaks at 30 tons where good steel of the same size breaks at 75 tons (2. 5 times stronger) (Hart 1967). While it was not trusted at the time because of its newness, the Roeblings’ had faith in its strength. At the time, suspension bridges were viewed with suspicion. Many had failed in storms or under live loads; however, none of the bridges John had built had ever failed. One of the reasons he had succeeded was that he made them very stiff, preventing flexing from wind that would plague other suspension bridge builders into the next century and most famously in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, more than 70 years after John. After due debate, the Brooklyn Bridge Company was formed with John Roebling as chief engineer (Invention Factory 2007). One thing that the times lent to the project was a good source of cheap labor. Poor immigrants, mainly Irish, were the ones who worked the most on the bridge. They also took the brunt of the casualties. Approximately 20-30 people died during construction and administration viewed it as necessary and unavoidable. Labor was very manual and at the time workers had very little power in politics. The Irish workers did not enjoy the choice of date, as it coincided with the Queen’s birthday. Technological Context Construction Details In December 1849, an accident mangled Roebling’s father’s left hand while undergoing testing on the innovative wire rope machinery. This new technology would set this bridge far ahead of its time, utilizing a braded configuration allowing flexibility and easier handling (Trachtenberg 1965). The Brooklyn Bridge would use steel in its cables. Good wrought iron breaks at 30 tons where good steel of the same size breaks at 75 tons (2. 5 times stronger) (Hart 1967). While steel was not trusted at the time because of its newness, the Roeblings’ had faith in its strength. At the time, steel or no steel, suspension bridges were viewed with suspicion. Many had failed in storms or under live loads; however, none of the bridges John had built had ever failed. One of the reasons he had succeeded was that he made them very stiff, preventing flexing from wind that would plague other suspension bridge builders into the next century and most famously in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, more than 70 years after John’s lifetime. Construction was very hazardous at that time, even for chief engineers. At the start of the project, the Brooklyn Bridge Company lost a crucial member. A ferryboat crushed John Roebling’s foot when he was on site. After having his toes amputated, during which he declined anesthetic, an infection set in and killed him (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Surprisingly there was little debate over who should succeed him. Washington Roebling was already deeply involved with the project so he was appointed successor (Invention Factory 2007). In 1872 disaster struck again. Washington himself was down in the caissons more than any one else. He was suddenly struck with what was called caisson sickness, and is what is modernly called the bends (Invention Factory 2007). This disease was not understood at the time and results from prolonged exposure to high pressures and then sudden decompression, allowing nitrogen bubbles to form in blood and possibly clog them. Washington was not the first to fall ill from the bends, in fact, people had already died of it but work proceeded on. After coming back even though clearly sick, Washington was bedridden, crippled for the remainder of the project. He was only able to stand for 10 minutes at a time when the bridge opened in 1883 (Smithsonian Associates 2004). Washington remained head engineer giving orders from his bed but the person most visible to visitors at the project was his wife, Emily. She knew just as much about the project as Washington. When a board of enquiry was put together to try to oust the bedridden head engineer she removed sufficient doubt from its members for Roebling to stay (Smithsonian Associates 2004). To say she was the head engineer would only be a very slight exaggeration. The towers that supported the span were made out of limestone, granite and concrete. Newly found techniques for making steel made it a cheap, strong metal for the suspension cables (Hart 1967). The first order of business was to sink the two giant caissons into the riverbed to support the towers (Figure 1). These were made of 12 x 12 yellow pine beams and weighed by themselves 3000 tons, having 15 foot thick roofs to keep the excavators from getting crushed by the eventually 80,000 tons of rock piled on top to make up the Towers. John found a new way to devise a foundation. The caissons were floated into place and then sunk into position, driven downward by the towers on top and crews underneath removing the actual riverbed (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Once they reached solid ground the caissons would be pumped full of grout and serve as a perfect foundation. They were undoubtedly the most tedious and difficult part of the bridge construction. Excavation methods consisted of shovel, pick, wheelbarrow, steel bar stone breakers, winches, and ten ton hydraulic jacks, eventually blasting after Washington Roebling conducted a series of experiments in the caisson. Initial rate of caisson excavation and lowering produced 6 inches per week, with a workforce of 360 people constructing the bridge (Trachtenberg 1965). Compressed air was used in the caissons to keep the water out, and the deeper they got (78 feet on the New York side, 45 feet on the Brooklyn side) the higher the pressure needed (ENDEX Engineering 2007). This was dangerous in more way than one. Fires could be catastrophic, and occasionally there would be a blowout that subsequently would allow water back in. The largest of these air releases blew rocks and mud 500 feet into the air in 1870. Fires, from using dynamite, were the worst however. One was found smoldering in the 15 feet of wood under the Brooklyn Caisson, fed by compressed air (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Eventually some timbers were replaced and the rest of the holes were pumped full of grout. The New York caisson was stopped after 78 feet not because it had reached rock but because conditions had become intolerable. As a result, to this day it rests on sand; surprisingly stable (ENDEX Engineering 2007). The Brooklyn and New York Towers were completed in 1875 and 1876 respectively (ENDEX Engineering 2007). The cables were strung after the completion of the towers. Perhaps the greatest calamity struck in the middle of this. A cable snapped, killing two men, and it was found to be very substandard (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Incidentally, the contractor who supplied the steel cable was not John Roebling’s Sons Co, which at the time was owned exclusively by Washington’s brothers. The cables were flawed. Eventually, the wire in all the cables, including 1520 suspenders and 400 diagonal stays, was approximately 3600 miles long (ENDEX Engineering 2007). Personal Characteristics Washington fought in the civil war both on the ground as a military observer from hot air balloons. Washington served at Gettysburg with distinction on Little Round Top and was at the siege of Richmond (Invention Factory 2007). He became very noble and selfless, though cocky at times, during the Civil War. Perhaps the most important part of his war career, however, was that he met his wife to be, Emily Warren, because he served under her brother, General G.K. Warren (ENDEX Engineering 2007). He ended the war at the rank of a Colonel. After the war he helped his father build the Cincinnati-Covington Bridge (now called John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge) before the Brooklyn Bridge. Despite many the huge hurdles of the Brooklyn Bridge project, among which was the fact that Washington became horribly sick and bedridden for most of the actual building from decompression sickness when the huge caissons for the twin towers were sunk in the Hudson riverbed (hence the traditional term ‘caisson sickness’), he managed to oversee all stages of its construction. He did this only with the help of his wife Emily Warren Roebling, who almost every day visited the site and reported to him and who some felt built the bridge herself (The Great Engineers, 1967). The Brooklyn Bridge was opened May 24th 1883 by the president of the United States U. S. Grant, to fireworks and one cent ticket passes to cross. Apparently it was a great relief to Washington Roebling as his health began to slowly improve. After the completing this engineering marvel in 1883, Washington lived a relatively quiet life, mostly as a result of being still partially crippled from his illness, and when his wife died in 1903 he remarried in 1908. He spent much of his time collecting minerals, which was his one great hobby, eventually having 16,000 specimens and ending up in the Museum of Natural History’s mineral and gem collection (Smithsonian Associates 2004). This hobby added balance to his life and probably kept him from accomplishing very much else as it took so much of his time. He outlived his wife Emily and remarried. He became president of his fathers company, John Roebling’s Sons, in 1921 at the age of 79. He brought incredible energy to the position, modernizing the factory with electricity and adding a galvanized wire section. The business prospered under his leadership until 1926, when Washington Roebling died. When one has hobbies such as athletics help keeps a healthy time management of school work and fun down time. College is one of the few times were one can have fun. There is a time and place to enjoy your hobbies but to enjoy these hobbies one must put in an honest day’s work. Conclusion When the Brooklyn Bridge opened to traffic on May 24th 1883, it was one of the grandest engineering marvels of that century in North America. The construction was composed of many firsts. Despite innumerable setbacks, including the untimely death of the original designer of the plan, John A. Roebling, and the crippling of his son, Washington Roebling, who succeeded him in the chief engineer duties it, was finished in 14 years, having been commenced January 2, 1870. At the time of completion it was 50% longer than any other suspension bridge, it was the first to use steel cables, much stronger than hemp or cast iron previously used. The towers that supported the four main cables (each of which supports a total dead live load of about 6 million pounds) for the span were the largest stone and masonry objects of their kind rising approximately 276 feet above the high water mark (Smithsonian Associates 2004). The challenges of this are hard to fathom in today’s world of reinforced concrete. Appendices Figure 1. Sinking the Caisson into the Riverbed Table 2: Brooklyn Bridge Innovations   1st suspension bridge to use steel 1st suspension bridge to twist the wire†¢ 1st bridge to use pneumatic caissons 1st to use dynamite in bridge construction   1st female field engineer   Longest bridge constructed   Tallest structure in the western hemisphere   Considered to be the â€Å"8th Wonder of the World†. Bibliography â€Å"Biography – Invention Factory 2007. † The Smithsonian Associates Civil War E-Mail Newsletter, Vol 3, No 9. Smithsonian Associates 2004. http://civilwarstudies. org/articles/Vol_3/roebling. htm Brooke and Davidson 2006, Kathleen L. , and Frank P. Davidson. Building the World. Vol. 1. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood P, 2006. 240. Brooklyn Bridge: Facts, History, and Information. ENDEX Engineering, Inc. 5 May 1998. 29 Mar. 2007 http://www. endex. com/gf/buildings/bbridge/bbridgefacts. htm. Hart 1967, Ivor B. The Great Engineers. Freeport, N. Y. : Books for Libraries P, 1967. Trachtenberg, Alan. Brooklyn Bridge: Fact and Symbol. New York, New York: Oxford UP, 1965. 11. Invention Factory 2007. John a. Reoblings Sons Co. 28 Mar. 2007 http://www. inventionfactory. com/history/RHAgen/warbio. html. Wikipedia Update: April 1, 2007 at 8:13 p. m. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Washington_Roebling.

Success and Failure in the US-Mexico War on Drugs Essay -- Essays Pape

Illegal narcotic drugs represent a $60 billion market in the U.S., and this year alone the State and Federal governments will each spend roughly $20 billion in attempting to stifle this market. The amount of money involved in the drug trade, substantially inflated due to prohibition, makes both systemic corruption and violence inevitable. The illegal drug trade is a sophisticated international network, and while no nation’s involvement is limited to one economic function, one relationship is crystal clear: Mexico serves as a high-volume channel of drugs into the United States, and drug traffickers will go to great lengths to continue serving the American consumers as long as their demand exists. A 1997 article stated that narcotics funnel as much as $30 billion into the Mexican economy each year, â€Å"more than the country’s top two legitimate exports combined.†[1] Despite decades of attempts to control this illegal activity, the public perception is that the United States’ war on drugs has failed to substantially reduce both the supply and demand of illegal drugs. Supply-side efforts have been plagued by conflicting political priorities and corruption in both American and Mexican administrations, while the costly anti-drug advertising campaigns and increased incarcerations of drug users have had only limited success in decreasing the demand for drugs. Furthermore, the inherent difficulty of international coordination in such an effort has hindered the success of the drug war. As James Finckenauer, Ph.D. of the National Institute of Justice states, â€Å"The complexity of the worldwide drug market and the vast resources available to narcotic producers and traffickers requires afflicted countries to collabor... ...] â€Å"Healthy People 2000 Final Review.† Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and National Center for Health Statistics. October, 2001. [15] â€Å"News from the DEA.† Speech by Asa Hutchinson, September 16, 2002. Baylor University. [16] Community Epidemiology Work Group. â€Å"Epidemiologic Trends in Drug Abuse: Advance Report.† National Institutes of Health and National Institute on Drug Abuse. December, 1999. [17] www.drugsense.org [18] â€Å"Gangster Cops,† a lecture by Joseph McNamara, Stanford University. Engineering 297, April 30, 2003. [19] â€Å"Gangster Cops,† a lecture by Joseph McNamara, Stanford University. Engineering 297, April 30, 2003. [20] â€Å"Vicente Fox on the Transition, NAFTA, Corruption, Drugs, the Economy...† Business Week: July 17, 2000.

Article analysis for an Economics class Essay

If someone earns a sum of money, and saves it rather than spends it, then, in no way can a person be losing wealth if not for inflation, which prompts the prices of all goods and services to rise. One may see this as a trend among businesses to maximize their profits. In reality, the root cause of the problem is not with businesspeople, but the Federal Reserve System continuously adding more money into the economy. The article I have chosen to summarize examines the U.S. economy of today mainly the food and energy prices that have rose sharply since March 2003, which has prompted the Fed to concern itself with the onset of inflation. In reality, what triggers the rise in prices is an increase of money in circulation, which is a result of the actions performed by the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve, being the government agency responsible for printing the nation money supply, determines how many dollar bills are put into circulation. The dilemma arises because, when more money is added into the economy and an individual has not spent any of it, the person is now poorer in relation to everyone else than they once were. Adding more money into the economy dilutes the value of each individual dollar, thereby decreasing its purchasing power. The article states that the price index gained larger than expected .3 percent, which adds to the inflation anxiety on Wall Street (Freilich). Inflation, however, tends to hurt the poor far more than it does the rich. For example, if a woman retires with four thousand dollars saved up, and the cost of a decent living is five thousand, then she only has eighty percent of what she needs to survive. Then, a year later, if there is one hundred percent inflation, then the necessary cost of living becomes ten thousand dollars. Even if that woman still had four thousand dollars, she would now have only forty percent of what she needed. Though they often have been blamed for inflation, businesses themselves are victims of inflation, as each company sees the costs of all of its resources rising. Retailers pay rising costs to distributors, who pay a rising cost to suppliers, who pay a rising cost for their resources. If a businessperson does not raise the prices of the merchandise, while the prices of resources  are rising, then he or she will have to reduce profits or cut back on much-needed supplies and services to maintain the company, which, in the end, could mean less business and still result in less revenue. Thus, inflation necessitates that businesses raise prices and employees demand higher wages, which often takes place in a random fashion. The article further states that prices received by farms, factories and refiners gained sharply to 0.8 percent last month, the largest jump since March 2003. Additionally, the Labor Department said first-time filings for state jobless aid fell 15,000 to 336,000 in the week ended June 12, their lowest level since early May. Increase in prices and an improved job market suggests that the U.S. economy’s momentum is likely to build in the coming months. The article adds stating that in addition to the growing economy, the dollar first rose against the euro and prices for U.S. government bonds fell, pushing yields up. Investors are worried about inflation pressure because stocks slipped, in part because of inflation concerns, but also due to news of more deadly bloodshed in Iraq. Inflation is understood that when governments print plenty of money and spend considerably, watch out for rising prices to continue. However, the volatile stock market and with elections coming soon, I believe to expect the unexpected. References Freilich, Ellen. Data Puts Inflation in Focus. Retrieved online Jun 17, 2004 Website: http://www.reuters.com/financeNewsArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=0RS0105W2AE4ECRBAEKSFEY?type=businessNews&storyID=5450085